To study and identify the given botanical specimens

 Aim: To study and identify the given botanical specimens

 Materials Required: Actual sample or pictures of grains/seeds/fruit/plant/flowers of:

Wheat, rice, maize, bajra, gram, pea, mango, banana, apple

Mustard, groundnut, castor, coconut, sunn-hemp, munj, cotton

Opium, turmeric, heeng, jeera, saunf, ajwain, tea, clove, chillies, black pepper

Observation:

Wheat (Triticum  aestivum ) Family: Poaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Seed - caryopsis

2.      It is a monocot cereal crop.

3.      It is a rabi crop.

4.      Inflorescence is spike of spikelets.

5.      Used as staple food in north India and various countries.

6.      Used also as a cattle feed.

 

Rice/Paddy (Oryza sativa ) Family: Poaceae

 1.      Useful plant part: Seed - caryopsis

2.      It is a monocot cereal crop.

3.      It is mainly a kharif crop.

4.      Inflorescence is spike of spikelets .

5.      Used as staple food in south India and east India; and various countries.

6.      Used also as a cattle feed.

 

 Maize (Zea mays ) Family: Poaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Seed - caryopsis

2.      It is a monocot cereal crop.

3.      It is a kharif crop.

4.      Inflorescence is spadix.

5.      It is a monoecious plant. Male followers – tassel, Female follower – cob.

6.      Used as staple food in mountainous regions; and various countries.

7.      Used also as a cattle feed.

 

Bajra / Pearl Millet (Penisettum typhoides )

1.      Useful plant part: Seed - caryopsis

2.      It is a monocot cereal crop.

3.      It is a kharif crop.

4.      Inflorescence is spike.

5.      Used as staple food in arid and semi arid regions. 

6.      Used also as a cattle feed.

 

Gram (Cicer arietinum ) Family: Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)

1.      Useful plant part: Seed

2.      It is a dicot pulse crop.

3.      It is a rabi crop.

4.      Inflorescence is solitary axilary. Fruit is legume.

5.      Root nodules with Rhizobium bacteria are present.

6.      Used as a source of protein and carbohydrate in food.

7.      Used also as a cattle feed.

 

 Pea (Pisum sativum) Family: Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)

1.      Useful plant part: Seed

2.      It is a dicot pulse crop; and an annual climber herb.

3.      It is a rabi crop.

4.      Inflorescence is racemose. Fruit is legume pod.

5.      Root nodules with Rhizobium bacteria are present.

6.      Used as a source of protein and carbohydrate in food.

7.      Used also as a cattle feed.

 

  

Mango (Mangifera indica ) Family: Anacardiaceae

 1.      Useful plant part: Mesocarp of fruit

2.      It is a large perennial tree. Gives fruit in summer.

3.       Inflorescence is compound racemose.

4.      Fruit is a drupe.

5.      It is a popular fruit and also used for making juice.

6.      Wood of the tree is also very useful.

 

 

Banana (Musa paradisica ) Family: Musaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Fruit

2.      It is a moncot, herbaceous, perennial and tree-like plant with pseudo stem.

3.      It has a rhizome under the ground.

4.      Inflorescence is spadix. Fruit is a berry, but without viable seeds.

5.      It is a popular fruit and also used for making juice and many dishes.

6.      Its broad leaves are traditionally used as plates.

  

 

Apple (Pyrus malus ) Family: Rosaceae

 1.     Useful plant part: Fruit

2.      It is a deciduous tree grown in Himalayan regions of north India.

3.      Its fruit is a pome which is a modification of thalamus.

4.      It is a popular fruit and also used for making juice.

5.      Wood of the tree is also very useful.

 

Mustard (Brassica campestris ) Family: Brassicaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Seed

2.      It is a rabi crop.

3.      It is an annual herb.

4.      Inflorescence is raceme and yellow in colour.

5.      Fruit is siliqua.

6.      Used to get cooking oil. Useful as medicine, for tanning etc.

 

 Groundnut (Arachis hypogeal ) Family: Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)

1.      Useful plant part: Seed

2.      It is a dicot pulse crop; and an annual herb.

3.      It is a rabi crop.

4.      Leaves are tri-foliate. Fruit is lomentum and grows underground.

5.      Root nodules with Rhizobium bacteria are present.

6.      Used as a source of protein, fat and carbohydrate in food.

7.      Used also as a cattle feed.

8.      Oil is produced for cooking.

 

 

Castor (Ricinus communis ) Family: Euphorbiaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Seed

2.      It is a small tree herbaceous as well as woody stem.

3.      Leaves are broad and palmately compound.

4.      Inflorescence is raceme. 

5.      Fruit is schizocarpic regma. Seeds are non-endospermic.

6.      It produces oil which is not used for cooking. But used as lubricant, varnish etc.

 

 Coconut (Cocos nucifera ) Family: Arecaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Endosperm and mesocarp of fruit

2.      It is a palm tree. Grows mainly on sea coast.

3.      Inforscence is spadix.

4.      Fruit is drupe. Mesocarp fibrous.

5.      It is a popular fruit and used for making cooking oil.

6.      Fibres are also useful.

 

 Sunn-hemp (Crotolaria juncea ) Family: Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)

1.      Useful plant part: Stem fibre

2.      It is an annual shrub with yellow flowers.

3.      Bundles are stems are kept under soil and the fibres get separated.

4.      Used for making ropes, bags, mats etc.

5.      Dry leaves are used as cattle fodder.

 

 Munj ( Saccharum munja ) Family: Poaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Leaf fibres and stem

2.      It is a tall perennial grass.

3.      Stem is thick. It is used in handicraft for making stool, chair etc.

4.      Fibres are obtained from leaf sheath.

5.      It is used for making ropes, mats and baskets.

6.      Young leaves are used as cattle fodder.

 

Cotton (Gossypium sp.) Family: Malvaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Seed and seed coat fibres

2.      It is a perennial herb or shrub.

3.      Stem is hard and branched.

4.      Fibres grow on the seeds which are used as common cotton.

5.      Cotton fibres contain cellulose.

6.      Cotton used in textile, first aid, etc

7.      Oil can be produced from seeds. It is used as cooking oil.

 

 Opium (Papaver somniferum ) Family: Papaveraceae

1.      Useful plant part: Unripe capsule

2.      It is an annual herb and medicinal crop grown in Rajasthan, MP etc.

3.      Flower is solitary, terminal and colourful.

4.      Fruit is a capsule which produces latex.

5.      The latex has many alkaloids like codeine, morphine etc.

6.      It has many medicinal uses. It is also narcotic.

7.      Seeds are used in cooking.

 

Turmeric ( Curcuma longa ) Family: Zingiberaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Underground rhizome

2.      It is a perennial herb.

3.      Leaves are broad, rhizome is small and thick.

4.      It is used as a spice, colouring and aromatic agent.

5.      It has many medicinal properties. Like blood purifier, expectorant, antiseptic etc.

 

 

Heeng (Ferula asafoetida ) Family: Apiaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Root

2.      It is a perennial herb.

3.      Its roots are thick and succulent having sulphur compound.

4.      It is used as a spice and flavouring agent.

5.      It has many medicinal properties.

 
 

Jeera / Cumin (Cuminum cyminum ) Family: Apiaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Seed

2.      It is an annual herb.

3.      Inflorescence is umbel.

4.      Fruit is cremocarp.

5.      It is used as a spice and also in various ayurvedic medicines.

 

Saunf / Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare ) Family: Apiaceae

1.       Useful plant part: Seed

2.      It is an annual herb.

3.      Inflorescence is umbel.

4.      Fruit is cremocarp.

5.      It is used as a spice and also in various ayurvedic medicines.

 

 Ajwain / Carom (Trachyspermum ammi ) Family: Apiaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Seed and fruit

2.      It is an annual herb.

3.      Inflorescence is umbel.

4.      Fruit is cremocarp.

5.      It is used as a spice and also in various ayurvedic medicines.

 

Tea (Camellia sinensis ) Family: Theaceae

1.      Useful plant part: Leaves

2.      It is an evergreen shrub.

3.      It grows on slopes at high altitude.

4.      Leaves are cured through CTC (crush, tear and curl) process for use as beverage.

5.      It has alkaloids like tannin, caffeine etc.

6.      It is a popular beverage and also has medicinal properties.

 

 Clove ( Syzygium aromaticum ) Family: Myrtaceae

1.      Useful plant part: unopened flower buds

2.      It is a perennial and evergreen plant.

3.      Grows mainly in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

4.      It is an important spice and flavouring agent.

5.      Clove oil is used in tooth paste, perfume, medicines etc

 

Chillies (Capsicum annum ) Family: Solanaceae

1.      Useful plant part: unripe and ripe fruit

2.      It is an annual herb.

3.      Its fruit is a berry.

4.      It has capsaicin, a crystalline phenolic substance which gives it a hot taste.

5.       It is used as vegetable and spice.

 

Black pepper ( Piper nigrum ) Family: Piperaceae

1.      Useful plant part: unripe and ripe fruit

2.      It is a creeper shrub.

3.      Grows mainly in southern states.

4.      It is an important spice.

5.      It has several medicinal properties also.

To study the biochemical tests for starch, sucrose, glucose, fat and protein.

                                                                                                                                         (Biochemistry)

Principle:  Presence of the substances can be ascertained using some confirmatory tests.

Materials required: 5 test tubes, test tube holder, starch solution, glucose solution, sucrose solution, vegetable oil, protein solution, iodine solution, Fehling’s solutions A and B, paper, Sudan III, benzene, , Biuret solution, Xanthoproteic reagent, spirit lamp

 Procedure:  

STARCH

Sr no.	Test	Observation	Inference
1.	Iodine Test: Take about 2 ml of the sample solution in a test tube and add one or two drops of iodine solution in it.	Solution turns blue.	Starch is present.

Result: The given sample solution is starch.

 

 SUCROSE

Sr no.	Test	Observation	Inference
1.	Iodine Test: Take about 2 ml of the sample solution in a test tube and add one or two drops of iodine solution in it.	No blue colour.	Starch is absent.
2.	Fehling’s Test: Take about 2 ml of the sample solution in a test tube; and add some amount Fehling’s solution A and B (in equal amount) Heat the mixture of the test tube.	Red precipitate is not formed.	Monosaccharide (Glucose, fructose) is absent.
3.	Fehling’s Test: Take about 2 ml of the sample solution in a test tube; and add 2 or 3 drops of dil HCl. Stir it. Heat the mixture in a test tube. Now add some amount of Fehling’s solution A and B (in equal amount). Heat the mixture of the test tube.	Red coloured precipitate is formed.	Monosaccharide (Glucose or fructose) is present.  (On adding dil HCl, Sucrose hydrolyses into glucose and fructose.)

Result: The given sample solution is sucrose.

 

GLUCOSE

Sr no.	Test	Observation	Inference
1.	Iodine Test: Take about 2 ml of the sample solution in a test tube and add one or two drops of iodine solution in it.	No blue colour.	Starch is absent.
2.	Fehling’s Test: Take about 2 ml of the sample solution in a test tube; and add some amount of Fehling’s solution A and B (in equal amount) Heat the mixture of the test tube.	Red coloured precipitate is formed.	Monosaccharide (Glucose, fructose) is present.   Presence of glucose is confirmed.
3.	Benedict’s  Test: Take about 2 ml of the sample solution and add some amount of Benedict’s solution. Stir it. Heat the mixture of the test tube.	Red coloured precipitate is formed.	Presence of glucose is reconfirmed.

Result: The given sample solution is glucose. 

 

 

FAT

Sr no.	Test	Observation	Inference
1.	Paper Test: Put a drop of the sample on a paper.	Translucent area is formed on the paper. Or Some area is translucent.	Fat is confirmed. Or Some fat is present in the solution.
2.	Solubility Test: Take 2 ml of the sample in a test tube; and add 2 ml of water in it. Stir it.	Sample floats on water. Two layers are formed.	Fat is possible.
	Take 2 ml of the sample in a test tube; and add some benzene (or chloroform or ether) in it.	Sample is soluble in benzene (or chloroform or ether).	Fat is possible.
3.	Sudan III Test: Take 2 ml of the sample in a test tube; and add a little Sudan III in it. Stir it.	Pink droplets appear.	Fat is confirmed.

Result: The given sample is fat. 

 

PROTEIN

 

Sr no.	Test	Observation	Inference
1.	Biuret Test: Take 2 ml of the sample solution in a test tube; and add some Biuret solution. Stir it.	Blue-violet colour appears.	Presence of protein is confirmed.
2.	Xanthoproteic Test: Take 2 ml of the sample solution in a test tube; and add Xanthoproteic reagent in it. Stir it. Heat the mixture.	Yellow precipitate is formed.	Presence of protein is reconfirmed.

Result: The given sample solution has protein in it.

 

The structures of Morula, Blastula and Gastrula stages of embryonic development

I am giving here a very simplified version of the various stages of embryonic development of human and several other animals. The purpose is to clarify the concept, give only the basic main points and to differentiate between the three stages.

Morula

1.      This is a solid mass of cells (blastomeres).

2.      It is formed 3 days after fertilisation

3.      It has 16 cells. All cells are totipotent.

4.      Its later stages have 32 cells and 64 cells.

5.      The outer cells form extra-embryonic parts and the inner cells form the future embryo proper.

Blastula

1.      This is formed 4-5 days after fertilisation.   

2.      This is a hollow sphere of cells with a cavity inside.

3.      The cavity is called blastocoel.

4.      Blastocoel has uterine fluid inside.

5.      Its later stage is called blastocyst with inner mass and outer trophoblast.

Gastrula

1.      It is an early multi-cellular embryo.

2.      It is formed after implantation.

3.      It is multi-layered. It has three germinal layers.

4.      It has an outer cavity called blastocoel.

5.      There is also a central cavity called archenteron.

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